Project Summary

Project Summary EDAC 655

The purpose of my project was to study the knowledge base and history of continuing professional education.  In order to do this, I elected to compare two historical periods in which adult education took place, evaluating the content and access.  The periods I chose were clearly very different.  The first was the antebellum period, which was most significantly noted for the presence of slavery in the southern states. The second period is the postmodern period, which is the period we currently live in.  The project involved completing a literature review, an investigation into these two different periods, an envisioning CPE paper, and evaluations of this paper.

The problem with examining adult education in these two periods is the way in which access to this education was used to limit access, creating marginalized people groups.  This limitation to access was a demonstration of the concept that knowledge is power, and a knowledge base evolved which was dynamic based on culturally acceptable ideology.

An example of the culturally acceptable ideology occurred in the antebellum period included the existence of slave codes which legalized the marginalization of slaves.  These codes were a part of the accepted ideology of the dominant culture, which saw the education of slaves as a dangerous activity.  In the free north a proposed joint effort to educate former slaves was derailed following the Nat Turner rebellion in Virginia.  The joint effort was derailed by the fear of the dominant culture involved in educating African Americans.

In the post-civil war era a condescending paternalism developed, which was equally destructive to the efforts of former slaves to become educated, because this approach now dictated the kinds of content that was considered acceptable for the former slaves to learn.  This concept meant that slaves were taught elements of education which were considered to be practical and that which could be applied to agricultural occupations which would make them more productive.  While not embracing the control, Booker T Washington promoted the concept of education based on practical application.  W.E.B. Du Bois opposed this concept.  It was argued by the dominant social group that the classical education for African American’s would be a wasted effort.  The dominant culture considered African Americans a more primitive and less developed race.  This is an example of a circular argument in which the cause of the lack of development was slavery imposed upon the African Americans by dominant white culture, and the restriction of education by the slave codes.

In the postmodern period, slavery no longer exists, and examples of successful individuals from all ethnic and racial segments of the population are widely known.  However, there are still a number of things which remain unchanged.  Attitudes by many white people are that racism is a thing of the past, particularly when successful individuals are representatives of so many different ethnic and racial groups.  Many individuals from marginalized groups are confused because they cannot understand why white people cannot see the racism which attempts to impose their ideology on all ethnic and racial groups.

This evidence is witnessed in the efforts to pass civil rights legislation, however, the passage of laws on a macro level cannot cause change on a micro or individual level.  The example given was the effort to include an anti-lynching law in response to some southern states refusing to prosecute hangings which targeted African Americans.  While supporting the legislation, many of the lawmakers still personally opposed it.  This is an example of passing civil rights legislation while retaining racist ideas and thoughts.

In order to change this imposition of ideology, the dominant culture must be willing to relinquish its control and recognize the benefits it can receive from embracing diversity.  It also must focus on the value of individuals and embrace collaboration across any artificially constructed boundaries.  It must also be recognized that the future CPE educators will connect with their students, be involved in the communities where they work, and teach with commitment and caring.

The change to be implemented is to focus on educators who identify, draw out, and encourage the positive traits of their students.  Additionally, this approach recognizes the innate value of every student and encourages them in the discovery of their positive traits which are considered strengths.

The evaluation of this paper was conducted by two colleagues who were very supportive and constructive in their evaluations.  The first commenter suggested that the strengths of the paper were the citation of resources which covered a span of considerable time.  I was also cautioned about the baggage that some students bring to the classroom.  Other comments included that the paper was correct in that equal access is not the same thing as getting an education which is of equal quality.

I appreciated the comments and feedback, and the time spent researching this topic. While I have learned a great deal, I felt that I also gained a great deal from the interaction on the topic with others in this class and other colleagues outside this class.

Project Demonstration

 

 

November Bibliography

 

Amstutz, D. M. (1999). Adult learning: Moving toward more inclusive theories and practices. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 19-32.

Congress, U. S. (1948). The outlook for 1949. Congressional Digest,27 (12), 291-292.

Guy, T. C. (1999). Culturally relevant adult education: Key themes and common purposes. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 82, 93-98.

Peterson, E. A. (1999). Creating a culturally relevant dialogue for african american adult educators. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 82, 79-91.

In the article by Donna Amstutz, the author explores the issue of dealing with different adult learning theories along with the concept that these theories are often viewed as ahistorical and acontextual.  She explains that there have been efforts to develop these theories to explain ways of knowing and developing truths through one particular cultural filter.  It is also noted that while there are efforts to view these learning theories in a cultural and historical context however, bringing these concepts into adult education has been more difficult.  The article continues to examine different ways of understanding knowledge.  Knowledge can be known, according to the author as either prescriptive or emancipator.  Prescriptive knowledge comes from traditional western tradition, while emancipatory cultural knowledge is considered to be the knowledge constructed by the oppressed groups which move them to action.

She concludes that knowledge must be dynamic and dialectical.  This means that the knowledge itself is being developed and evolves, which is dialectical and results from the consideration of more than one position or interpretation.  This means that knowledge is not absolute or static.  Perhaps the most important comment is made when the author states that the adult educators also become learners.  Additionally, perspective transformation is seen as a type of learning in which a person’s assumptions and beliefs are challenged and changed.  This means that situated cognition is critical to identifying the different ways of making meaning.  This includes the identification of the social context in which learning takes place.   The author concludes that the educators will be teaching with love, which means that the educators will teach with concern and compassion for their students, with a healthy concern to help them to succeed.

In the Congressional Digest, the outlook for 1949 discussed the outlook for the agenda of the recently re-elected administration of Harry Truman.  The digest reported the agenda, which included an aggressive civil rights legislative set of priorities.  Among these priorities was the desire to pass a federal anti-lynching law.  This law was in response to the occurrences of a number of murders in some southern states which were not aggressively investigated because minorities were involved. The desire to pass a federal anti-lynching law would allow federal authorities to investigate and prosecute these murders as violations of civil rights.  In this article a long list of opponents to the agenda included Senator Lyndon Johnson, who would later sign the civil rights act of 1965.

The point of this article and inclusion in my CPE envisioning paper was to identify that even with civil rights laws, the most significant element in treating individuals from marginalized ethnic and racial backgrounds equally, requires more than new laws.  It also requires a change in the individual.  In other words, it was possible for Johnson, who opposed the anti-lynching legislation which would impact his home state of Texas, and later sign a civil rights act into legislation.  It is important to recognize  that a person can sign legislation, but still personally remain unchanged internally.

 In the article by Talmadge Guy, the thesis which is proposed is that the American system contains a built in element of oppression for certain marginalized racial and ethnic groups.  African Americans, Native Americans, and Hispanic Americans continue to make up a disproportionate element of the population which is undereducated and unemployed.  Guy identifies culturally relevant programs as those in which educators help those who face oppression take control of their lives through education.  In order to accomplish this, it must be recognized that the learner self-image is of primary importance.

Learner transformation takes place when the adult educators are able to facilitate a transformation in the way the adult learners adjust their self-perception and their ability to change their lives.  This self-perception is critical to understand the trap of marginalization.  Learners who maintain and internalize negative self-images are marginalized by the dominant culture that has a vested interest in keeping learners from challenging the basis for their marginalization.  As a result adult educators who serve marginalized learners must be willing to reexamine their assumptions about learners in order to avoid imposing their own biases on learners.  It is important that adult educators are also aware of the political and socio cultural realities in which the learners must exist.  It also means that as educators they must serve as advocates for the learners whom they represent.  It also means that adult educators continue to explore and expand creative and culturally relevant methods to address the needs of a growing number of adults in these marginalized subcultures.

Envisioning CPE Review

Envisioning CPE Review

For EDAC 655 Continuing Professional Education

For

Dr. Bo Chang

Ball State University

                For the review of my CPE envisioning paper, I invited two colleagues to read the paper and offer their comments.  The first reader was Coleen Rector, Business Program Coordinator from the Anderson Campus of Harrison College.  Her review of the paper was from the perspective of an individual who teaches in an environment where the focus is on non-traditional college students.  Her comments are offered from this perspective.

                Her comments were very complimentary and encouraging.  Some of her comments offered included, “I like the way you couples resources form over a decade ago to more recent [resources] to answer your vision of what needs to be done, and measuring how we educators are doing so far.”  She also commented that she appreciated the story about the youth group experience which, “. . . exposed you to things from language, food, typical schedules, to roadblocks along the way that the dominant race has not experienced unless they have walked in their shoes.”   Her comments were also cautionary in some respects which included the comment that consideration needs to be granted to students who enter the classroom with baggage.  She offered the example of a student entering the classroom with the preconceived notion that a white instructor was ‘out to get her,’ she described the response by the educator who handled the situation by demonstrating that this was not the case.  She also noted that the temptation to overcompensate for these perceptions.

                My second reviewer was Charlotte Taylor, who is the program coordinator for Criminal Justice at Harrison College in Anderson.  She was also very complimentary about the paper, noting that the information included was ‘timely and very accurate.’  She offered her observation that, “there is a lot of discussion occurring right now about the current climate of education be-it primary, secondary or post-secondary in terms of providing a sound education to everyone regardless of their culture or socio-economic status.”  She continued, “While it is true that through public education everyone has the access to an education, but the quality of the education is not the same across the board.”

                I appreciated the feedback and comments from both of these colleagues as individuals whose educational efforts I appreciate and respect.  Both are excellent educators and have the respect of their students.  In reflecting on their comments, I appreciated the comment on the need to experience or ‘walk in another person’s shoes,’ although I question whether I could ever really do that.  As a white middle class teenager, I knew that I would be returning to the comfort of the life that I was so familiar with.  However, I had to appreciate that the experience for the family I stayed with would not change.

                I also appreciated the cautionary comments that it may be possible for a student to enter the classroom with a significant amount of baggage.  I experienced a similar situation with a student who came to class with a very specific amount of baggage and difficulty.  His approach to me was defensive from the start, and he began class by assuming that my actions were biased against him in particular.  His hypersensitivity to the issue indicated that there was a significant amount of baggage.  Even though I attempted to approach the class with an even handed and unbiased approach, I sought to meet with the student privately, along with my supervisor (the director of education).  During the conversation, I expressed my support for his efforts and ask for an open conversation about the issue.  I understood there was baggage, but I also understood that it was probably there because of past actions of educators who impacted his perspective of someone like me.  I also understood that it was up to me to break that stereotypical understanding based on previous experience.

                I also valued the input received from my second reviewer, who is offered her perspective and acknowledged some of the difficulties identified in the paper.  As an African American educator, I sought her opinion because of her area of study (criminal justice) and because of some of the conversations we have shared in the past.  I particularly appreciated her comments that equal access is not the same as equal quality of education.

October Bibliography

Dennis, M. (2001). The skillful Use of Higher Education to Protect White Supremacy. The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 32, 115-123.

E. Paulette Isaac, Lisa R. Merriweather, and Elice E. Rogers. (2010). Chasing the American Dream: Race and Adult and ContinuingEducation. In A. D.-G. Carol E Kasworm, Handbook of Adult and Continuing Education (pp. 359-368). Los Angeles: Sage.

Green, J. R. (2005). "Practical Progress is the Watchword": Military Education and the Expansion of Opportunity in the Old South. The Journal of the Historical Society, 3, 363-390.

Guy, T. C. (1999). Culture as Context for Adult Education: The Need for Culturally Relevant Adult Education. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 82, 5-16.

Katherine Nicoll, Andreas Fejes. (2011). Lifelong learning: a pacification of 'know how'. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 30(4), 403-417.

Moss, H. J. (2006). Education's Inequity: Opposition to Black Higher Education in Antebellum Conneticut. History of Education Quarterly, 46(1), 16-35.

Peterson, E. A. (1999). Creating a Culturally Relevant Dialogue for African American Adult Educators. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 82, 79-91.

Thompson, J. C. (1993). Toward a More Humane Oppression: Florida's Slave Codes, 1821-1861. Florida Historical Quarterly, 71(3), 324-338.

Warner, D. J. (1988). Commodities for the Classroom:Apparatus for Science and Education in Antebellum America. Annals of Science, 45, 387-397.

Welton, M. R. (2010). Histories of Adult Education: Constructing the Past. In A. D.-G. Edited by Carol E Kasworm, Handbook of Adult Continuing Education (pp. 83-92). Los Angeles: Sage.

In my CPE investigation paper, I refocused the examination of the CPE knowledge base to complete a comparison of adult education in two historical periods.  The first period being the antebellum period in the U.S. compared to the current postmodern period in the U.S.

In the article, The Skillful Use of Higher Education to Protect White Supremacy, the author discusses the post-civil war climate in the south in which a new type of progressive emerged.  This new type of progressive urged the education of former slaves in paternalistic fashion, providing a practical education to maintain a compliant agricultural workforce.  This approach did not value the liberal arts education for African Americans, instead preferring to provide practical agricultural education which would be considered to be ‘practical’.  Charles Dabney, the president at the University of Tennessee, argued that “the negro is a child race at least 2,000 years behind the Anglo-Saxon in its development.”  Dabney represented the view of many progressives who saw education as the way blacks would receive the supervision of whites.

In Chasing the American Dream the authors discuss the conditions of adult education currently, applying the concepts of Critical Race Theory which suggests that the impact of racism and white privilege require a major shift from the concept of civil rights activism (a change of the social structures) to a more widespread shift in the way racial inequities are observed.

In the article, Practical Progress is the Watchword, the author explores education in the antebellum period, in which the growth of military academies occurred at an amazing rate.  The author observes that in the antebellum period, these academies provided expanding opportunities for the white middle class.  Education for slaves and free African Americans was extremely limited and non- existent in the South due to laws enacted to limit the education of slaves, known as slave codes.

In the article, Toward a more Humane Oppression: Florida’s Slave Codes 1821-1861, the author discusses the prohibitions against educating slaves in the south.  It describes ways in which the slave codes sought to prevent slaves from becoming educated, and being able to communicate in order to rebel against their white masters.  Some of these acts were punishable by branding, mutilation and even death.  The slave code began by defining who was a slave, which meant that the children inherited the status of their mother.  This meant that children who were the product of the union between slave owners and their female were to remain enslaved.  There was a fear of the growing population of mixed race children, which some saw as a potential source of rebellion.

In the article Education's Inequity: Opposition to Black Higher Education in Antebellum Conneticut, the author explores the opposition to a school which was probosed as the joint project for the sole purpose of educating African Americans.  Following the Nat Turner rebeilion, the town rose up in opposition of the project.  The opposition was fierce, even in the progressive environment of New England.

In the article, Culture as Context for Adult Education: The Need for Culturally Relevant Adult Education the author explores the way peoplehave been marginalized by the dominant culture, and how these marginalized have attempted to become a part of the culture.  They have been assimilated into the dominant culture, they have endured a bicultualism which instructs them to adhereto the dominant culture’s expectation while maintaining their individual ethnicity as a secondary culture.  The way to a culturally relevant education requires instructors to become a part of their learner’s environment and culture.  They make an effort to understand and communicatein culturally relevant ways with their students.

Envisioning CPE

Envisioning CPE

Dan Royer

EDAC 655

Continuing Education for Professionals

  

                Since I chose to investigate the CPE (Continuing Professional Education) knowledge base for my project, I began working with an approach which did not necessarily find a solid fit in the historical comparison with the present.  The seeds for the work were present in the Literature Review paper, however, it was not completely developed and elements of that paper departed from the focus of what I wished to do.   In my CPE Investigation paper, I focused on the two periods which seemed the most distinct from each other for adult education, and for African Americans in particular.  The first period was the antebellum period which was the era leading up to the civil war, and the second was the postmodern period of which we are a part.  In my investigation of these two periods disparities were obvious, although not as complete as I might have hoped.  My experience has painfully pointed out the truth that racism has not been removed as we might have thought and that African Americans and other minorities still struggle for equal access to education.  Therefore, my envisioning CPE paper will springboard from this comparison between where we used to be to where we are now to envision CPE of the future.

                As I concluded my CPE investigation paper, I noted that while it would seem that a great deal of progress has been made on the front of culturally diverse education, there is a great deal lacking.  As Donna Amstutz pointed out, “the central problem is how adult educators can adjust instruction to provide meaningful learning experiences for all learners.  Increasing the congruence between learning preferences and needs based on the cultural backgrounds of learner and approaches to teaching and learning employed by adult educators is crucial.” (Amstutz, 1999)  I couldn’t agree more.  As a Caucasian, I cannot understand, comprehend or completely appreciate the difficulties that another ethnic group experiences when attempting to obtain an education.  As a descendant of a Western European settler who entered the United States in the early 1700’s, my experience and heritage is connected to the dominant culture.  In order to fully develop CPE that is effective in the future, we must be willing to step away from a dominant position and recognize what we can learn from other diverse culture groups while we are attempting to assist them to learn.

                In the CPE Adult Education of the future educators are willing to understand the differences between learners and learner groups.  The first effort to provide this diverse experience is to instill this value in individuals who become CPE educators.  Representation from all respective ethnic groups should be trained and prepared to become effective educators.  Ideally, these educators would become a part of a larger group which in its entirety is trained to work in cross cultural contexts, meaning they possess the ability to teach in ethnic and cultural situations beyond their native one.  It must be stated that these instructors are able and capable to teach in this context while maintaining respect for learners and refusing to impose prejudicial ideas or biases on the students (Guy, Culturally Relevant Adult Education: Key Themes and Common Purposes, 1999).

                Not only in the CPE of the future are educators more culturally aware and sensitive, but they are also are connected with the lives of their students.  These educators know the culture, spending time in the communities which may be different culturally and ethnically from their own (Guy, Culture as Context for Adult Education: The Need for Culturally Relevant Adult Education, 1999).  This bridging of the cultural gap occurs because these teachers are ‘teaching with love’, which means that to be a good educator one must teach with commitment and caring, while remaining patient with learners who are unaware of their racist, sexist, and ethnocentric beliefs (Amstutz, 1999).

                In my own personal experience, this began during my teenage years, and I believed opened my mind to understand that my limited cultural perspective was inadequate to consider the experience of other people, particularly people of color.  During one particular church summer camp, an African Methodist Episcopal church arranged for a group of young white, middle class teenagers to stay with different families in the community.  For a week we lived with these families.  It was my first experience with many things, but I will never forget my host who was a kind and gentle African American woman with a great deal of patience.  This experience taught me that my own perspective could not be considered the standard against which all others were measured.

                Teaching with love does not imply an emotional or even romantic attachment, but it transcends being an educator of the mind only, and demonstrates a healthy concern and interest in students in order to see them develop to their full potential.  It recognizes that through education, a great deal of power is available and provided to learners.  As suggested by Nicoll and Fejes in a postmodern move, the locus of power moves from learning to knowledge (Katherine Nicoll, Andreas Fejes, 2011).  The CPE of the future will acknowledge this fact, and as a result restrictions to equal access based on racial and ethnic identity will be removed.  Power of the dominant group will not be sustained by restricting access to the same quality of knowledge for all people.  The focus of these educators will be to facilitate the development of each individual’s unique potential.  This means that educators must locate, develop and reinforce positive traits and abilities of their students, and voice these in a positive and respectful fashion.

It has been recognized that:  “Learner self-image—seeing oneself in a positive light and being supported in that self-perception by other learners and educational officials—is a crucial aspect of culturally relevant education.” (Guy, Culturally Relevant Adult Education: Key Themes and Common Purposes, 1999)  On the flip side of the same coin, “. . . learners who retain internalized negative or passive images of themselves are marginalized by the dominant culture.” (Guy, Culturally Relevant Adult Education: Key Themes and Common Purposes, 1999)  Therefore educators who serve students from these diverse cultures will focus on building the confidence and ability of these students who are already suffering from negative images.

In this CPE future, educators will become aware of the difference between the attempt to deal with racism through changes on macro level and the need to bring about change on a micro level.  Change on the macro level is the equivalent of changing laws in order to produce civil rights and guarantees for people of color.  The change on the macro level is needed, because without it, many of the southern states in the 1950’s and 1960’s would not have enforced state laws equally.  For example, in the Congressional Digest of 1948 presents a discussion of the agenda items of the Truman administration agenda including a civil rights proposal that included a federal anti-lynching law (Congress, 1948).  It is also interesting to note that included in the opposition to this law was Senator Lyndon Johnson from Texas.   It does make one ask how sincerely he supported the Civil Rights Act when he signed it.

This shift from the macro-narrative to the micro-narrative is an indication of a postmodern shift needed to address the issue on a more personal level and to bring about a more comprehensive change.  This would best be accomplished through applying critical race theory. 

As noted by Peterson, critical race theorists assert that racism cannot be eliminated by judicial and legislative processes, but that it requires sweeping changes (Peterson, 1999).  In the CPE of the future, these changes will come through changes in curriculum, instructional methods, and assessments designed to remove the cultural and racial barriers which are inherent in the assumptions of the dominant culture (Peterson, 1999).  

“To conceive of a future that is unitary and universal, that does not recognize the needs of diverse learners, is untenable.  The answer is complex because the world of adult education is changing (Zepke, 2006).”  The future of CPE must be willing to adapt to an understanding rooted in the humanist tradition, which embraces transformative, experiential and self-directed learning (Zepke, 2006).  This understanding means that there must be an intentional effort to bring about cross cultural education.

In order to implement this future, educators will begin by being prepared for the cross cultural educational experience, by undergoing a cross cultural experience in which they spend time in a culture other than their own.  This experience will do two things.  The first will be to develop an understanding of a culture other than their individual culture of origin.  Additionally this experience will serve to break down any biases and stereotypes be engaging the future educators in an immersive environment which allows them to learn and make friendships across cultural boundaries.  This includes providing opportunities for transformational learning to take place which challenge engage individuals in developing new ways to understand these differences.  Furthermore, this will allow educators to connect with learners and identify with different cultural experiences.

Secondly, a concerted effort would be made to develop a culturally diverse group of future educators.  It would be necessary to initiate this continuing education with a variety of educators who may be primarily from a more culturally homogeneous group.   In order to be successful, this development of educators which are more representational of different cultural and ethnic groups must be undertaken.  This means that opportunities and support must be offered to encourage a diverse group of future educators are developed.  This would provide for the development of different perspectives and approaches in adult education.

Thirdly, a conscious effort must be made to examine and develop curriculum and lesson plans to ensure potential bias has been removed.  Traditional curriculum that attempts to steer adult education in the direction of adopting the dominant cultural view must be challenged.   Curriculum cannot be devoted to a particular cultural point of view, and must be developed to be broad enough to avoid the trap of building in traditional values.  Rather this vision is based on a curriculum which is rooted in humanism and pragmatism, and promotes placing value on each learner. 

It is equally important to evaluate the development of lesson plans and assessments to ensure that cultural biases are eliminated, or that alternative cultural viewpoints are valued (Peterson, 1999).  This examination, reevaluation and development must occur in order to reduce the risk of inherently accepting curriculum with underlying racist or ethnically isolating values and concepts.

Finally, it is important to develop connections with community resources which currently exist, and to work in partnership with these institutions.  It is critical that the institutions which are highly regarded and trusted in these culturally diverse communities also be engaged in the effort.  This means that it will be expected that in order to participate in adult education in different cultural and ethnic contexts, the primary need is to establish credibility and trust.  Partnering with trusted institutions allows for the impact of adult education to expand into these communities.

                An example of this occurs in the Martindale Brightwood neighborhood as Martin University (a four year institution for Higher Education).  This university builds credibility by being present in the community, but also through its many connections with institutions which are highly regarded in the African American community.  Marin University has established a sense of credibility in the Martindale Brightwood neighborhood and the African American community through its connections with trusted institutions and community groups.

                In conclusion this future has successfully removed the barriers present in education which are presented to people outside of the dominant cultural barriers through embracing concepts which treat each individual with respect and dignity.  It also accomplishes this by developing adult educators who are sensitive to cultural values and differences because they have been immersed in these differing cultures.  Further it seeks to develop and recruit new adult educators by intentionally providing these opportunities to individuals who are representative of the diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds which are served.  Finally, connections are established with the culturally respected institutions which the adult educators seek to serve.

References Cited

Amstutz, D. M. (1999). Adult Learning: Moving Toward More Inclusive Theories and Practices. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 19-32.

Congress, U. S. (1948). The Outlook for 1949. Congressional Digest,27 (12), 291-292.

Guy, T. C. (1999). Culturally Relevant Adult Education: Key Themes and Common Purposes. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 82, 93-98.

Guy, T. C. (1999). Culture as Context for Adult Education: The Need for Culturally Relevant Adult Education. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 82, 5-16.

Katherine Nicoll, Andreas Fejes. (2011). Lifelong learning: a pacification of 'know how'. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 30(4), 403-417.

Peterson, E. A. (1999). Creating a Culturally Relevant Dialogue for African American Adult Educators. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 82, 79-91.

Zepke, N. (2006). Diversity, adult education and the future: a tentative exploration. International Journal of Lifelong Learning,24(2), 165-178.