Adult Education in Antebellum and Postmodern Periods in America
Dan Royer
EDAC 655
Continuing Education for Professionals
When attempting to understand the adult education perceptions of the past, one difficulty is attempting to transcend from the present to the past. In the present we understand through the mistakes and errors of past efforts. In order to perceive the thought processes of the past, we must be able to comprehend general philosophical influences and ways in which the participants in past efforts at adult education understood their role. There is little doubt that it will differ greatly in our present understanding and assumptions.
The purpose of this paper is to identify the nature and content of adult education in two different historical periods. The problem that is presented with analyzing the education of an historical period is determining how education will be examined and evaluated. Michael Welton notes this problem and refers to Lawrence Cremin’s solution which acknowledges that while institutions of education relate to each other in “configurations of education,” every society will have “discordant configurations” which are in conflict with the dominant understanding (Welton, 2010). Welton expands on this concept in his chapter by quoting Cremin who wrote that discordant education is “an education in which at least two configurations sought to inculcate in the same individuals quite different attitudes via quite different pedagogies” (Welton, 2010). This makes it possible to understand the conflict between the pedagogy of white slave owners (dominant) in the antebellum south and the covert and subversive pedagogy of slaves in their family and religious life. The secondary period which will be examined is the postmodern period which we currently occupy, and the attempts in this time period to provide culturally relevant education to adult learners from outside the dominant cultural group.
The antebellum period is most widely recognizable by the existence of the institution of slavery, primarily in the south. During this period of time discordant configurations in education were clearly evident.
In the South, the growth of educational institutions (for members of the dominant culture) was more dramatic. Many Southerners sought to avoid sending students to the North where they feared they would embrace ‘heretical’ northern ideas (Green, 2005). The growth in educational institutions accelerated with the growth of these regional and national tensions. This resulted in the growth of military academies, which focused on the instruction of a more ‘practical’ form of education. This change in focus in these institutions reflected a change in curriculum, which was shifting away from the classical programs of the past (focused on ancient languages and ancient studies) to a science based curriculum. These programs modeled their programs after the West Point model where the study of sciences consumed 71 percent of classroom time (Green, 2005).
During this period of time, the advancement of scientific studies was brought about by many scientists employed as educators, and as such, desired to popularize their subject and advance its adoption as a profession (Warner, 1988). The apparatus varied but included models and visual illustrations of scientific principles and concepts. Benjamin Silliman, who is considered the father of American science, toured the country giving lectures which were quite popular. His lectures drew thousands, in which scientific principles were illustrated through models, visual aids, and drawings (Warner, 1988). Silliman called it “Speaking to the mind through the eye” (Warner, 1988).
These practical demonstrations were known as ‘object teaching’ (Warner, 1988) and were a significant development of the period, and became a part of an educational philosophy. This philosophy engaged direct experience to illustrate and make the material of lecture memorable and give it application. Without this illustration, the lecture was a theory which was hard to understand, uninteresting, and hard to understand. The development of these illustrations included the first use of projected images utilizing lanterns and slides (Warner, 1988).
While the members of the dominant southern culture enjoyed a growing access to adult and higher education, African Americans struggled to obtain adult basic education. The conduct of an owner toward his or her slaves was dictated by a series of ‘slave codes’ enacted on a state by state basis. Many of these codes held strict penalties for teaching slaves to read or write (Thompson, 1993). These kinds of restrictions prohibiting adult education for African Americans may have been expected in the South where the slave codes were common; however, some experiences in the North indicate a similar resistance to educating African Americans.
It is interesting to note the case of a cooperative effort between a black and a white minister who desired to create an institution of higher learning for African Americans in New Haven Connecticut (Moss, 2006). The proposed educational institution was planned and announced in the fall of 1831. Unfortunately, the timing came on the heels of the Nat Turner rebellion in Virginia which occurred on August 22, 1831 (Moss, 2006). While the proposal for such an institution would have been understood before as a controversial suggestion before, following the uprising in Virginia it was considered seditious. The proposal for the school was voted down in a city meeting by a margin of 700 to 4 (Moss, 2006). This, however, was not the end of the unrest, as Moss noted, the citizens of the town took out their anger on “a black-owned hotel, a black-owned home, and an abolitionist’s summer residence” (Moss, 2006). This reaction was not restricted to Connecticut, as similar efforts by whites undermined African American educational efforts in a number of the Free states. As Moss noted, “Historically, most Connecticut whites believed in the concept of universal education, except insofar as it applied to African Americans” (Moss, 2006).
Given that the general opposition to institutions such as schools, the function of educating African Americans was assumed by the Antebellum African church. Given the lack of educational alternatives, the church became the primary source for black education (Moss, 2006). During the 1820’s the availability of primary education to blacks began to improve, largely the result of African church’s efforts, higher education remained out of reach.
During the antebellum period, the growth in education was clear for the dominant white middle class, which included access to popular lectures and presentations of scientific concepts and ideas, along with the development and growth of regionalized education institutions (i.e., military academies) which promoted practical and scientific studies. This represented a movement away from the previous emphasis in education on classical studies toward a practical understanding of education. During this period the locus of power is in the access to learning, and which learning is available to whom.
It has been observed by Nicoll and Fejes that the locus of power (a central concept of Foucault) has been shifted from learning to knowledge. They point this out because the knowledge obtained has become economically empowering, because it is marketable (Katherine Nicoll, Andreas Fejes, 2011). This concept of power was not lost on those who controlled the access to education in the antebellum period, and resulted in the denial of education to those who were not a part of the dominant class.
In the post civil war era, where there were no longer any legal means to deny the access of the former slaves to education, the ruling white class translated its denial of education into a paternalistic image of African Americans as dependent children (Dennis, 2001). This resulted in a sense in which the dominant white class was ‘allowing’ the education of former slaves. Charles Dabney argued that the black race was “. . . 2000 years behind the Anglo-Saxon in its development” (Dennis, 2001). Such a viewpoint saw the former slaves as pitifully primitive, while not harmful, in need of the supervision of their white superiors (Dennis, 2001).
They argued this was needed because the education of blacks as suited to bring their values into alignment with that of the dominant ruling class. There was a concerted effort to fit the education offered suitable toward specific roles that continued to repress the race, while appearing to give them assistance (Dennis, 2001). A classical liberal arts education, on the other hand, was seen as a disservice because it led to individuals who were unwilling or unfit for any kind of useful work (Dennis, 2001). The general consensus in the New South and many in the North was that education for these former slaves would continue along the same trajectory, albeit in a slightly different attitude. Instead of repression, the mood was paternalistic condescension (Dennis, 2001). It was assumed that the African Americans would clamor for the ‘opportunity’ of participating in Anglo-Saxon culture (Dennis, 2001).
The response from the African American community was mixed. Booker T. Washington was a leading advocate of practical education for blacks which gave them more efficient agricultural skills. His was a more pragmatic approach adopting a slower pace for change that he feared would be less threatening to white power holders (Peterson, 1999). On the other hand W.E.B. Du Bois emphasized the need for African Americans to be able to function on their own, and rise above the typical menial labor offered. He connected the lack of opportunity to the ignorance which was perpetrated on the black community (Peterson, 1999).
It might be anticipated that as far removed as we are from this past, a different reality might be experienced today. However, as Talmadge C. Guy observes about the United States, “Despite this diversity of culture, however, the nation continues to be dominated by a macroculture that emphasizes Western-European cultural values” (Guy, 1999). It is these marginalized groups who require culturally relevant adult education to help them take control of their lives and improve their condition (Guy, 1999).
The issue of changing demographics and expanding cultural diversity are a reality. These changing trends indicate that the domination of Western European will likely be replaced by a more heterogeneous culture to challenge the previously accepted customs and values (Guy, 1999). The problem is that the U.S. mainstream culture has functioned in the past by assimilating various cultures into the dominant culture which values individualism, freedom, toleration, nonconformity, materialism, and Christianity (Guy, 1999). A cycle of oppression and deprivation occurs in which the minorities are blamed for the circumstances they experience, and also denied access to fundamental services which might assist them in breaking out of the situation, as he notes, adult education is the fundamental resource which can break the cycle (Guy, 1999).
As it has been noted in the need to present a culturally relevant adult education, many African Americans desired access to what was perceived as a superior educational experience. However, many were now encountering instructors who were not prepared to understand them (Peterson, 1999). The issue that this presents is a need for an expanded dialogue to engage and meet the needs of African American learners. It is as Elizabeth Peterson observes not a “one size fits all” approach to dealing with educating black learners (Peterson, 1999). The observation that many times curriculum, instruction and assessments have been historically skewed toward the dominant culture, and expectations have not been appropriately identified based on the needs and abilities of the students (Peterson, 1999).
The fact that racism has occurred in adult education is a reality. There is also a reality that as the dominant culture, white Euro-centric ideas and values have been privileged. The problem is that many white people do not see the racism, while many African Americans struggle to understand how their white colleagues do not see it. The question of diversity has been clothed in a new racism, according to Isaac, Merriweather and Rogers, called managing diversity (E. Paulette Isaac, Lisa R. Merriweather, and Elice E. Rogers, 2010). This new racism, according to the authors, suggests that we can exercise the economy of power relations, which uses this approach to bring about conformity (E. Paulette Isaac, Lisa R. Merriweather, and Elice E. Rogers, 2010).
Presently, I am privileged to work with Martindale Brightwood Community Development Corporation on the near northeast side of Indianapolis. This is a nonprofit organization which was formed in the early 1990’s to provide assistance and community development services to the Martindale Brightwood community. The office is located at 2855 North Keystone Ave in Indianapolis.
The function of this organization is to provide assistance for low income residents of the community with essential housing repairs, assistance with basic skills needed to obtain employment, preparation for GED examinations, foreclosure prevention counseling, and classes in financial literacy.
The community organization is operated and managed by a fine group of individuals, all of whom are concerned with the efforts for improving the community through the assistance provided by the services offered. The community organization is reflective of the community where it is situated. It is a minority operated organization, which is directed by the Executive Director, Ms. Josephine Rogers. The majority of the staff, like the majority of the community is African American. Unlike the community, the bulk of the staff possesses degrees in higher education. All staff members receive additional training in their area of expertise, and many provide services for which they have received certification from the appropriate authority.
The services offered, are offered for the majority of African Americans by African Americans. This is critical because the commonality of experience is identifiable, which is foreign to someone who is Caucasian. As a Caucasian male, I cannot identify with the experience, although, I have chosen to work with this organization and believe in its mission to bring these services to the residents of the community. Classes are offered in personal finance, home ownership, and employment preparation and skills training. The difference here is that the organization is a fine group of African American professionals offering services to African Americans in their community.
The differences between the antebellum period and our current time are, on the surface, quite marked and different. Slavery as an institution is no more, basic education is available to all people, and there are certainly examples of highly successful individuals from all ethnic backgrounds and racial origins.
However, it could be argued that the underlying attitudes have remained stubbornly fixed. It was on the birth of my grandson, who is a wonderful boy, and incidentally biracial, that I heard questionable comments about his color and race. I was stunned to hear individuals whom I had once respected spewing stereotypical repulsive comments about my flesh and blood. In my naiveté I could not believe that so much racism still existed. I was not aware of it because I did not have someone I loved who was experiencing its bitterness. I have learned regrettably, that such racist attitudes have persisted, despite the external appearance of progress.
As Elizabeth Peterson observes, “Whites and nonwhites cannot share an experience of “race,” so differences must be mediated through education. Education becomes relevant when it creates an opportunity for us to better understand and appreciate one another.” (Peterson, 1999)
References Cited
Dennis, M. (2001). The skillful Use of Higher Education to Protect White Supremacy. The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 32, 115-123.
E. Paulette Isaac, Lisa R. Merriweather, and Elice E. Rogers. (2010). Chasing the American Dream: Race and Adult and ContinuingEducation. In A. D.-G. Carol E Kasworm, HAndbook of Adult and Continuing Education (pp. 359-368). Los Angeles: Sage.
Green, J. R. (2005). "Practical Progress is the Watchword": Military Education and the Expansion of Opportunity in the Old South. The Journal of the Historical Society, 3, 363-390.
Guy, T. C. (1999). Culture as Context for Adult Education: The Need for Culturally Relevant Adult Education. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 82, 5-16.
Katherine Nicoll, Andreas Fejes. (2011). Lifelong learning: a pacification of 'know how'. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 30(4), 403-417.
Moss, H. J. (2006). Education's Inequity: Opposition to Black Higher Education in Antebellum Conneticut. History of Education Quarterly, 46(1), 16-35.
Peterson, E. A. (1999). Creating a Culturally Relevant Dialogue for African American Adult Educators. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 82, 79-91.
Thompson, J. C. (1993). Toard a More Humane Oppression: Florida's Slave Codes, 1821-1861. Florida Historical Quarterly, 71(3), 324-338.
Warner, D. J. (1988). Commodities for the Classroom:Apparatus for Science and Education in Antebellum America. Annals of Science, 45, 387-397.
Welton, M. R. (2010). Histories of Adult Education: Constructing the Past. In A. D.-G. Edited by Carol E Kasworm, Handbook of Adult Continuing Education (pp. 83-92). Los Angeles: Sage.
